6. Teachings of Jesus
These are direct statements of truth from Jesus concerning the nature and character of God the kingdom of God/Heaven, what God expects of us, principles of righteous living, and the ways in which Jesus fulfils the Old Testament prophecies.
They are not exhaustive ‘DOs and DON’Ts,’ but rather, serve as examples and paradigms (patterns) from which we can derive underlying principles to apply in other situations. These teachings are found in parts of the Gospels i.e. Matthew – John.
7. Letters
These are generally occasional documents i.e. they were written with a clear purpose to a well identified audience. However, some letters (called epistles) were written to a larger people group.
The letter/epistle writer presents arguments to correct, rebuke, defend, instruct, praise and encourage their readers. Letters/epistles form the vast majority of the New Testament from Romans to Jude.
8. Apocalypse.
This includes the book of Revelation, and also large parts of Ezekiel and Daniel.
Revelation is a vision of warning and encouragement to the early church as it was going through immense persecution.
D. Types of writing in the Bible – Literary Forms
The Bible is a collection of works composed over great spans of time by various writers who each had a unique perspective and style of writing in which to present the message. As a result, the Bible contains writings of several genres, or literary styles. Each genre is suited to the message that is being used to present but in order to understand the message being presented we must first know how to approach the genre itself.
1. Figures of Speech
A figure of speech is a word or phrase that is used to convey something beyond its ordinary meaning. An example of figure of speech would be to say that "the Sun has set."
The Sun has not actually set but has become hidden beyond the edge of the Earth due its rotation. We say that it has set but we are conveying information of an entirely different sort.
We are using a figure of speech because the context of the expression has been established over time and it has become understood that the obvious meaning of the figure of speech is not the meaning that is intended and that we are speaking of things as they appear, not as they are.
It is important to regard the Biblical context of each figure of speech as it is encountered in order to interpret properly what is being said, for often the opposite of what seems to be true will be used and will only become apparent through reading the surrounding verses.
Several types of figures of speech are:
a). Parables
An extended metaphor or simile which compares a religious truth with a common experience or circumstance. It means to place two things alongside each other for comparison. They both illustrative and provocative and have only one message or central idea, and even if multiple messages are present, one of them will be the chief idea.
A parable exists to establish one main point. "In preaching parables and similitudes, great care should be taken to discover their object and design, and those grand and leading circumstances by which the author illustrates his subjects."
Stories told for the purpose of driving home a specific idea or collection of ideas. In most cases, like the rest of the Bible, parables have ONE BASIC MEANING.
Ex: The parable of the ten virgins is a Biblical example. It is full of unique symbolism:
the number ten, virgins, lamps, oil.
The parable of 10 virgins teach readiness:
• Arminians have used it to prove it was possible to fall from grace
• Holiness advocates have used it to prove a second blessing
• Calvinists use it to prove there may be professions of faith which are not genuine
• Dispensationalists use it to prove some detail of God's prophetic program - partial
rapture?
• Others attempt to derive some doctrine about the Holy Spirit
The point of the story is that we should "watch" or "be spiritual alert." Whatever else all the symbols mean is not clear, and to start building doctrines on this parable (like a doctrine of a partial rapture) is theological thin ice.
A parable is a story that is true to life but is not usually an event that has actually occurred (much like the novels of our day) and may be considered to be an extended simile (see below). The parable is usually designed to teach one main point, such as the parable of the Good Samaritan is used by Jesus to teach the concept of loving one’s neighbor. Parables are generally found in the gospels and are usually introduced by a phrase similar to this: "And Jesus spoke this parable,"
Ex:
“He also told them a parable: "No one tears a piece from a new garment and puts it on an old garment. If he does, he will tear the new, and the piece from the new will not match the old. 37 And no one puts new wine into old wineskins. If he does, the new wine will burst the skins and it will be spilled, and the skins will be destroyed. 38 But new wine must be put into fresh wineskins. 39 And no one after drinking old wine desires new, for he says, 'The old is good.’" (Luke 5:36-39 ESV)
Some guidelines for interpreting parables are as follows:
1. Take note of the actual meaning of the story
2. Study the occasion that prompted the parable if it is given, this is the context
3. Find the central point of the parable
4. Compare this point with the teaching of the Bible
5. If there seems to be some interpretive problem obtain what information you are able relating to the cultural background of the story and the people it was told to
6. Resist the temptation to allegorize the parable, a parable is a sermon of one point and frequently the details of the parable merely exist to set off the main point and do not have significance in and of themselves
b). Allegory
An allegory is a story that is usually not true to life and may be considered to be an extended metaphor (see below). An example of an allegory is shown below:
"I am the true vine, and my Father is the vinedresser. Every branch of mine that does not bear fruit he takes away, and every branch that does bear fruit he prunes, that it may bear more fruit. Already you are clean because of the word that I have spoken to you. Abide in me, and I in you. As the branch cannot bear fruit by itself, unless it abides in the vine, neither can you, unless you abide in me. I am the vine; you are the branches. Whoever abides in me and I in him, he it is that bears much fruit, for apart from me you can do nothing. If anyone does not abide in me he is thrown away like a branch and withers; and the branches are gathered, thrown into the fire, and burned. If you abide in me, and my words abide in you, ask whatever you wish, and it will be done for you. By this my Father is glorified, that you bear much fruit and so prove to be my disciples.”. (John 15:1-8 ESV)
The allegory usually teaches several points but may concentrate upon one or two of significance.
c). Anthrpormorphism
When speaking of God, either by man or by God Himself, as though He had human body and formation. Although human beings were created in God’s image, and Jesus Himself ascended into heaven in human form, it is not necessarily the case that God looks just as we do. Creation in His image is generally believed to refer to our abilities of reason, self-consideration, intelligence, and our possession of a soul. When anthropomorphism is used it gives vivid imagery to the acts, thoughts, and will of God.
d). Apostrophe (apo + strepho = to turn from)
This occurs when the writer directly addresses things or persons that are either absent or imaginary.
Ex: "Sun, stand thou still upon Gibeon; and thou, Moon, in the valley of Ajalon." (Joshua 10:12)
Ex: Turning from the immediate hearers to address an absent or imaginary person or thing. "Ah, sword of the Lord! How long till you are quiet?" (Jer 47:6).
This is a strange but graphic figure which sounds as if the speaker were talking to himself in a sort of externalized soliloquy.
Ex: David said to his dead son, "O my son Absalom, my son, my son Absalom! Would I had died instead of you, O Absalom, my son, my son!" (2 Sam 18:33).
This is a moving expression of David's grief and no other mode of expression could be quite so expressive in this instance.
Ex: There is the use of this figure in which the kings of earth address a fallen city, "Alas! alas! thou great city, thou mighty city, Babylon! In one hour has thy judgment come!" (Rev 18:10).
This figure of speech seems best adapted to the expression of deep emotion. As such, it readily grabs our attention and draws out our interest.
e). Euphemism
The substitution of a more agreeable expression for one less accepted
Ex: "He fell asleep" in the place of "He died."
f). Hyperbole (Huper + bole = a throwing beyond)
Intentional exaggeration for the purpose of emphasis, or a magnifying beyond reality.
Ex: "If your right eye causes you to sin, pluck it out and throw it away..." (Matt. 5:29).
Ex:: "I am weary with my groaning; all the night make I my bed to swim; I water my couch with my tears." (Psalm 6:6) This a deliberate exaggeration for the purpose of emphasizing the stated point.
Painting a picture larger than life by intentional exaggeration beyond reality is a common feature of our own speech, so hyperbole (a throwing beyond) should be thoroughly familiar to us.
Ex: In the anguish of his torment Job indulges in this kind of language. More graphically than any other form of speech it expresses the awfulness of his feeling of affliction.
>READ Job 30:1-23<
We get the sense of his utter despair from this highly expressive, but extravagant, language.
Ex:: “Now there are also many other things that Jesus did. Were every one of them to be written, I suppose that the world itself could not contain the books that would be written” (John 21:25 ESV).
If we considered the eternal existence of Jesus, perhaps this statement could be taken literally, but if we limit it to what Jesus did in His humanity then it is clearly a use of hyperbole.
g). Interogation
Essentially a rhetorical question to which the answer is obvious and does not need to be given
Ex: "Is any thing too hard for the LORD?" (Gen 18:14).
Ex: "My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?" (Matt 27:46)
h). Irony (Eiron = a dissembling speaker)
The opposite of the intended meaning is stated in order to emphasize or call attention to the intended meaning, revealed by tone of voice in living people and by the context when written.
Ex: "...you are the people and wisdom will die with you" (Job 12:1).
Ex: King David's wife says, "How glorious was the king of Israel today" (2 Sam 6:20). The context of the verse shows clearly that she was telling him how she thought he had actually dishonored himself.
The use of irony as a figure of speech often has a humorous side.
Ex: Jesus used both effects when he said, "How can you say to your brother, 'Brother, let me take out the speck that is in your eye,' when you yourself do not see the log that is in your own eye? You hypocrite, first take the log out of your own eye, and then you will see clearly to take out the speck that is in your brother's eye.” (Luke 6:42 ESV).
Ex: The apostle Paul used sarcastic irony with great force, "Already you have all you want! Already you have become rich! Without us you have become kings! And would that you did reign, so that we might share the rule with you!" (1 Cor 4:8 ESV)
Ex: The apostle Paul contrasts the state of the Apostles as being the last--not the first, as spectacles to the world, as fools. Then he uses sarcastic irony again, "We are fools for Christ's sake, but you are wise in Christ. We are weak, but you are strong. You are held in honor, but we in disrepute." (1 Cor 4:10 ESV).
i). Litotes
Saying something by denying its opposite, as in the use of "He is not far off" in the place of "He is near."
j). Metaphor (Meta + phero = a carrying over)
An implied comparison between two dissimilar items as in: "My God is the rock of my refuge." (Psalm 94:22), a word applied to something it is not, to suggest a resemblance. "Benjamin is a ravenous wolf..." (Gen 49:27).
By contrast, a metaphor is not so straightforward. It communicates an impression more by implication. In the expressions, "You are the salt of the earth..." (Matt. 5:13) and "You are the light of the world" (Matt. 5:14), our Lord Jesus is multiplying metaphors to communicate graphic truth about the determinative role Christians are to play in affecting the world. In those early days, salt was the major means of arresting corruption in meat or fish, so the figure is not lost on those who listened to Jesus.
Light, in any age, enables us to function with any degree of confidence. It dispels darkness. When we can't see, we're in trouble! The words "salt" and "light" are used as implied comparison. These metaphors speak with penetrating force, even though they are implicit in nature.
k). Metonomy (Mesa + onoma = a change of name)
1). A figure of speech in which an idea is deduced or named through the use of a term indicating an associated idea.
Ex: "When Moses is read" (2 Cor 3:15), or to refer to the writings of Moses rather than the person of Moses.
2). One word is used in place of another to portray some actual relationship between the things signified.
Ex: "Kill the Passover..." (Exod. 12:21 KJV) where the paschal lamb is meant.
Speaking to the Pharisees concerning Herod, Jesus said, "Go and tell that fox..." (Luke 13:32) With one word He characterized that politically crafty king.
Ex: "The way of the fool is right in his own eyes..." (Prov 12:15) where eyes represents the way he sees things, or his mental perspective.
Ex: "...the tongue of the wise brings healing" (Prov 12:18) in which tongue stands for what the wise one says, his words of wisdom.
Ex: "Then went out to him Jerusalem and all Judea and all the region about the Jordan..." (Matt. 3:5) in which it is obvious that people, not places, are meant in the mention of these various regions.
Ex: "You cannot drink the cup of the Lord and the cup of demons. You cannot partake of the table of the Lord and the table of demons" (1 Cor 10:21). Here cup and table are used for what they contain and what they offer.
Ex: In Romans 3:30 the circumcision is used to represent the Jewish people, while uncircumcision refers to the Gentiles.
These examples show how common metonymy is used in the Bible. We use the same figure of speech today when we call a person "a lion" or "a kitten."
l). Personification (To make like a person)
Inanimate objects are spoken of as persons as if they possessed life and personality and is evident in the language of imagination and feeling. The writer speaks about, not to, a non-personal or non-living thing as though it had human characteristics.
Ex: "The sea looked and fled..." (Psalm 114:3-4).
Ex: "Let the floods clap their hands: let the hills be joyful together." (Psalm 98:8)
Referring to inanimate objects
Ex:, "...the earth opened its mouth and swallowed them up..." (Num 16:32) speaks of Korah and his men. Here the earth is personified as having a mouth to devour these men.
Ex: Jesus used personification in, "O Jerusalem, Jerusalem, the city that kills the prophets and stones those who are sent to it! How often would I have gathered your children together as a hen gathers her brood under her wings, and you would not!" (Matt 23:37 ESV).
The city of Jerusalem was personified. The concern of Jesus was for the people, yet He addressed the city as if it were them.
Ex: Jesus personified tomorrow in these words: "Therefore do not be anxious about tomorrow, for tomorrow will be anxious for itself. Sufficient for the day is its own trouble." (Matt. 6:34 ESV). The word “tomorrow” is invested with characteristics of human personality, as being beset with anxious cares.
m). Phenomenal language
Not scientific language
Ex: “The sun rises, and the sun goes down, and hastens to the place where it
rises. (Eccl 1:5)
n). Pleonasm The use of superfluous words
Ex: "according to all that we have heard with our ears." (2 Sam 7:22)
o). Simile (similis = like)
A formal comparison between two things using "as...so" or "like" to express resemblance.
Ex: "Even so, husbands should love their own wives as their own bodies..." (Eph. 5:28).
Ex: "His heart is as firm as a stone." (Job 41:24)
p). Synecdoche (suh·nek·duh·kee) (sun + ekdechomai to receive from and associate with).
It is the use of a specific term in place of a general term, or vice versa where the whole is put for a part, or a part for the whole; an individual for a class and vice-versa.
Ex: "And we were in all 276 souls..." in Acts 27:37, where soul is used for the whole person.
Ex: "Then shall ye bring down my gray hairs with sorrow to the grave" (Gen 42:38) which refers not only to the gray hairs on the man's head but to the man himself.
Ex: We often say, "This is his hour" when we don't really mean an hour just sixty minutes long. We mean this is his time of glory, or suffering, or whatever we associate with his current experience. We have substituted a part for the whole.
Ex: Judges 12:7 we are told Jephthah was buried "in the cities of Gilead" (Hebrew) though actually only one of those cities is meant;
Ex: Luke 2:1 "all the world" is used to mean the world of the Roman Empire
Ex: Deuteronomy 32:41 "if I whet the lightning of my sword" the word lightning is used for the flashing edge of the gleaming blade.
q). Types
An illustration from an OT person, animal, object, event, or institution that existed historically, but pictured a future reality.
Ex. Adam/Christ Romans 5:12-17; 1 Cor 15:20-26
NOTE: You must always be careful to observe the context of any figure of speech or literary device as the context will always allow us to determine the cause and situation for any specific passage. We cannot isolate discrete passages from their context at the risk of greatly misrepresenting the truth of the Bible. An example of this taken to the extreme is found in the Bible student who took the following two passages out of their context:
“Then when Judas, his betrayer, saw that Jesus was condemned, he changed his mind and brought back the thirty pieces of silver to the chief priests and the elders, saying, "I have sinned by betraying innocent blood." They said, "What is that to us? See to it yourself." And throwing down the pieces of silver into the temple, he departed, and he went and hanged himself.” (Matt 27:3-5 ESV)
“...Go and do likewise.” (Luke 10:37)
The context is important to the proper understanding of any passage within the Bible if we are to remain true to its teaching.
Figures of Speech, and their expressive value, are used throughout the Bible to help us appreciate the color and realism they lend to the language used which should help to take some of the mystery out of our encounters with these forms when studying the Bible.
